Haryati Ahmad Hairi
1 
, Nurul Izzah Ibrahim
2, Muhammad Zulfiqah Sadikan
3, Putri Ayu Jayusman
4, Ahmad Nazrun Shuid
5* 1 Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Medicine, Manipal University College Malaysia, Jalan Batu Hampar, Bukit Baru, 75150 Melaka, Malaysia
2 Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Jalan Yaacob Latif, Bandar Tun Razak, Cheras, 56000 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
3 Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine, Manipal University College Malaysia, Jalan Batu Hampar, Bukit Baru, 75150 Melaka, Malaysia
4 Department of Craniofacial Diagnostics and Biosciences, Faculty of Dentistry, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, 50300 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
5 Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine, Universiti Teknologi Mara (UITM), Jalan Hospital, 47000 Sungai Buloh, Selangor, Malaysia
Abstract
The biological actions of oestrogen are mediated by the oestrogen receptor α or β (ERα or ERβ), which are members of a broad nuclear receptor superfamily. Numerous in vivo and in vitro studies have demonstrated that loss of circulating oestrogen modulated by classical ERα and ERβ led to rapid changes in pancreatic β-cell and islet function, GLUT4 expression, insulin sensitivity and glucose tolerance, dysfunctional lipid homeostasis, oxidative stress, and inflammatory cascades. Remarkably, 17β-oestradiol (E2) can completely reverse these effects. This review evaluates the current understanding of the protective role of classical ER in critical pathways and molecular mechanisms associated with insulin resistance and type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM). It also examines the effectiveness of menopausal hormone therapy (MHT) in reducing the risk of developing T2DM in menopausal women. Clinical trials have shown the protective effects of MHT on glucose metabolism, which may be useful to treat T2DM in perimenopausal women. However, there are concerns about E2's potential side effects of obesity and hyperlipidaemia in menopausal women. Further studies are warranted to gain understanding and find other oestrogen alternatives for treatment of insulin resistance and T2DM in postmenopausal women.